How Societ Influences Gender Identity Essay Example

How Societ Influences Gender Identity Essay The impact of social and cultural norms on the way an adolescent shapes and perceives identity has come under greater scrutiny in recent years. Although societies differ in the specific nature of the attributes associated with maleness and femaleness, each society attempts to communicate the gender norms to children and adolescents through various mechanisms. Acculturated gender roles have a significant influence on the way parents rear children, which impacts the way the children view themselves. A conflict between the external societal role assigned to an adolescent based on biological gender and the internal gender identity formed by the adolescent can have negative consequences for psychological health. Gender identity involves the fundamental sense of belonging to a gender as defined by societal norms, which may be different from the biological sex of the individual (Vasey Bartlett, 2007). While most adolescents have a gender identity based on their biological sex, many have a strong psychological identification with the opposite biological sex and may desire to become a member of the opposite sex. If the identification with the opposite sex and the desire to become a member of the opposite sex causes significant psychological distress, it is considered a gender identity disorder (GID) based on the criteria in the DSM-IV. In this construct, the identification with the opposite sex is not in itself a disorder, and must be the source of significant distress sufficient to interfere with life activities. Various factors can influence the development of gender identity among children and adolescents, including parental behaviors and norms, peer norms, and the depiction of the gender roles traditional in the society in various types of media. We will write a custom essay sample on How Societ Influences Gender Identity specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on How Societ Influences Gender Identity specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on How Societ Influences Gender Identity specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The cognitive perspective of the development of gender identity suggests that information received from external sources contributes to the formation of gender identity. The amount and quality of the information influences the gender schema of the individual, which is the internal cognitive network that organizes and guides individual perceptions about the attributes associated with masculinity and femininity. The schema is influenced by socialization processes and the feedback received from role models in the dolescents environment. In this context, the cognitive processing of information leads adolescents to choose as an organizing principle for their behavior and to interpret the behavior of others. Based on the cognitive perspective of development of gender identity among adolescents, the following research will test three hypotheses. The first hypothesis stated in its alternate form is: Some variations about the conception of sexuality and gender identity are culturally specific . This hypothesis is based on the assumption that some standards of the concept of masculinity and femininity may correlate in all societies, but each society makes adaptations to the standards that are culturally specific. The second hypothesis of the study stated in its alternative form is: Parents influence the development of gender identity through the way they allow children to participate in gender-specific play and the toys they permit the children to use in play. This hypothesis is based on the assumption that parents transmit information to children about socially accepted gender roles, with the adolescent influenced by the information acquired during earlier stages of development. The third hypothesis of the study is: Media has the greatest influence in the transmission of information about social norms related to gender to the individual. The hypothesis is based on the assumption that adolescents are significant consumers of media in various forms. Evidence from research indicates that adolescents draw from popular culture to construct their identities, which includes gender identity (Wright, 2007). As a result, the information embedded in media about gender norms and stereotypes can have a significant influence on the development of gender identity during adolescence by communicating societal values and norms with respect to behavior expected from males and females. Case Study (Person Whom I Know) Samantha, who uses the nickname Sam, is a female aged 14 who is considered a tomboy by her parents and peers. She tends to dress in male clothing and engage in activities that are stereotypically male such as contact sports and playing action video games. She also watches television for two to three hours a day and frequently attends movies, usually alone. While she wears a stereotypically female hair style, it is cut relatively short. She is academically bright and intends to enter college after she completes high school. She is sexually attracted to boys her age, but conceals her feelings because she is concerned about rejection. She is socially ostracized by the females in her peer group and is often the object of negative comments about her behavior and sexuality. As a result, she has engaged in physical fights with some of her female peers. At the same time, she is not fully accepted by males in her age group as a peer because of their awareness that she is a female. Her parents encourage her to dress in more traditionally female clothing, which she resists. They also attempted to ensure that she had only the toys they deemed appropriate for a girl when she was a child. Although they continuously encourage her to be more feminine, they assume that she will eventually outgrow the behaviors they consider inappropriate for an adolescent girl. As a result, Sam does not discuss her problems with her parents because she believes it will inevitably lead to criticism of her behaviors. Literature Review Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) investigated the influence of teen movies on the development of gender-based beliefs about friendships, social aggression and the roles of women in society. The research was based on Banduras social cognitive theory, which postulates that the media is a significant source for the acquisition of gender-linked knowledge. The social cognitive theory functionally uses a constructivism paradigm by suggesting that individuals cognitively create a self-identity construct based on information obtained from other social actors. In effect, a medium such as film contains information about societal expectations concerning roles and conduct for the genders and standards that individuals use for self-evaluation and the evaluation of others. The study focused on the depiction of the mean girl in teenage film, which involves a teenage female social circle dominated by a girl who is tyrannical and bullying. The social circle emphasizes a caste system, with outsiders the target of the bullying. The research examined the content of 20 teenage films using university students as coders. The findings of Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) determined that female characters in the films were more likely to engage in socially aggressive behavior than male characters. In addition, females were more likely than males to be rewarded for engaging in socially aggressive behaviors. When the films depicted socially cooperative behaviors, however, no differences between the genders existed, with both genders equally rewarded for engaging in these types of behaviors. The findings supported the conclusion that exposure to these messages embedded in the film media could encourage the development of negative beliefs about the value of female friendships and poor attitudes towards women in general. The films also convey the message to adolescents that aggressive behavior is an acceptable method for achieving higher social status and other rewards. Because the article uses the social cognitive theory, it assumes that gender identity is a social construct with adolescents adopting the behaviors they perceive to be the norm based on their gender identity. It does not, however, discuss the implications for the media message for adolescents who do not accept the gender norms. The Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) article has the highest priority in terms of relevance for Sam. Because Sam frequently watches movies and television, she is likely to have encountered the media construct of the mean girl. Sam may find the construct unpleasant because it depicts adolescent females as tyrannical and bullying. To some degree, this may account for her reluctance to engage in the stereotypical behaviors expected of a adolescent girl. To fully adopt the gender identity of a female would require that she participate in the social activities that involve dominance by a mean girl and bullying of other girls not within the social circle. As a result, she pursues male friendships, although these friendships may not meet her full range of needs for peer interactions. She may expect a reward from socially cooperative behavior with males in the form of peer friendships. Another aspect of Sams behavior that may be influenced by the media is physical fighting with other girls when they behave in a derogatory or demeaning manner towards her. Although she does not fully formed a stereotypical female gender identity, she is aware that she is biologically female. In the teen movies, females are rewarded for socially aggressive behavior, which sometimes includes fighting with other females. As a result, she may believe that it the use of aggression toward other females will bring a reward while the use of cooperation with males will bring a reward. Wright (2007) investigated whether adolescents with gender identity uncertainty are attracted to media depictions of individuals who do not conform to traditional gender stereotypes. This research was based on both the essentialism and constructivism paradigms. The research assumed that male-to-female transgendered individuals were biologically influenced to adopt a female gender identity. At the same time, these individuals had to develop a social construct derived from the norms and values of a subculture in which transgendered individuals were accepted. The research relied on interviews with adult transgendered individuals that had been adolescents in the 1960s. The focus of the research was the influence of a female television character in the television show The Avengers on male adolescents of the period that subsequently became trans-women. The female character in this show exhibited qualities that were considered masculine at the time by using physical strength and intelligence as well as rescuing her male partner from danger. The author noted that the role was originally intended for a man, with a woman subsequently cast in the show. Wrights (2007) findings indicated that the subjects used the female character as a role model to construct a gender identity that blended some aspects of male and female stereotypes during adolescence. The subjects of the study were biologically male and had some of the physical strength and intelligence associated with the male stereotypes of the period. The character in the television show demonstrated these male attributes, but also exhibited the stereotypically feminine attributes of attractiveness and sexuality. The findings also indicated that the video tapes of the old television show are used among modern adolescents who are male-to-female transgendered to provide a female role model that has some male attributes. This finding suggests that the attributes of the media character remain relevant for adolescents experiencing difficulty developing a gender identity. The findings also noted that the individual subjects were rejected by their parents for failing to conform to gender norms in the society, which led them to rely on media representations to develop an understanding of their position in society. The research findings imply that adolescents with gender identity conflicts search popular media to find role models that allow them to construct a gender identity that feels appropriate. It also implies that the media sometimes provides social constructs concerning gender roles and attributes that differ substantially from the stereotypical norms. The research conducted by Wright (2007) has the second highest priority of relevance for Sam because it indicates that the media contextualizes the experiences of adolescents. Sam watches an extensive amount of television and attends movies, and presumably has favorite characters or stories that she perceives as relevant for her situation. Many of the modern female media characters outside of teen movies may display non-stereotypical attributes that Sam may find relevant. By seeking out media characters or stories with female characters with blended male and female attributes, she may be validating her gender identity that is neither stereotypically male or female. From this perspective, the media has an influence on her gender identity by confirming that she need not adopt the stereotypical role and attributes of a female to obtain rewards or to be successful. Miller and Sommers (2007) investigated depiction of males and females in video games targeted to the adolescent market. The research was based on the environmentalism paradigm in which the media functions as a social influence by depicting the norms and standards expected by society. The theoretical premise was that the media representation informed adolescents about the attributes that are socially desirable for each gender, with adolescents failing to conform to the representation feeling inadequate. The research method used content analysis of video game magazines to determine the way in which the games portray male and female characters. Video games may have a more significant influence on adolescents than other types of media because of the high degree of engagement when playing the game and the repetitive nature of the activity. In effect, the adolescent player is more susceptible to influences form the embedded messages in the game content such as the appropriate behaviors of males and females. Miller and Sommers (2007) found that male figures are heroic and physically powerful in video games while females are secondary characters that are sexualized through their appearance and attire. In some games with more mature themes, the females are sex objects whose sole function is to provide an objective for the male hero to achieve. Male characters also have a wider range of skills and abilities than female characters in the games, including games in which female characters can behave as leaders or heroes. Although both adolescent males and adolescent females play video games, the industry primarily targets the male market, which may account for the general weakness of the female characters in the games. In the games analyzed in the study, male characters were five times more likely to be included in a game than female characters. The video games appear to endorse the gender stereotypes by creating an unrealistic image of masculinity and femininity, which can influence gender identity if individual adolescents do not believe they conform to the image. The research conducted by Miller and Sommers (2007) has the third priority in relevance to Sams situation. Sam plays video games, primarily with her male companions. At the same time, her parents are not fully aware of her preferences in video games and assume that she only plays games they would consider appropriate for young girls. As a result, she is likely to play games intended for male adolescents in which the male characters are heroic and skillful while the female characters are passive and sexualized. During the process of play, she receives the embedded information about the stereotypical behavior of males and females, and considers the male role as more attractive than the female role. The play of the video game may influence her to adopt a male role in the game, which reinforces her gender identity ambivalence. Vasey and Bartlett (2007) conducted research among Samoans to determine whether the criteria for GID was valid in non-Western societies. Samoan culture has a high degree of social tolerance for feminine males known as faafafine. The purpose of the research was to determine whether the identification with the opposite biological sex and engaging in behaviors associated with the opposite sex inherently cause psychological distress. The research was based on an environmentalism perspective in which social influences contribute to the formation of gender identity by either encouraging or discouraging the behaviors that the society deems appropriate or inappropriate for the gender of the individual. The methodology used by Vasey and Bartlett (2007)involved interviewing adult faafafine to determine if they experienced cross-gender identification in childhood and adolescence, and if they experienced distress because of their gender identification. The findings indicated that the subjects did not experience distress concerning their gender identity because their more feminine attributes were considered acceptable in Samoan society. The findings also determined that parents did not discourage the subjects from adopting the gender identity of the faafafine, and therefore were not a source of psychological distress because of the failure of the individual to meet parental expectations of appropriate behavior based on biological sex. The findings also suggested that the Samoan culture considered females more nurturing and males more protective, which may be cross-cultural gender attributes. The conclusions reached by the authors was that the GID diagnosis should be removed from the DSM-IV because the psychological distress related to gender identity is created by the societal norms and expectations in Western culture and is not inherent to gender identity. While the article examined social influences leading to psychological distress, it did not explore the reasons why the faafafine males identified with the female gender. The Vasey and Bartlett (2007) article has the third highest priority for Sams situation. The findings and conclusion of the article suggest that the individual selects a gender identity with the degree of distress resulting from the selection dependent on the gender norms and stereotypes of the society. Sam is experiencing some psychological distress because of her gender identity that has attributes associated with both males and females in Western society. She has difficulty forming friendships with males and females in her peer group. Although the distress does not appear to be affecting her academic achievement, it appears to be interfering with her social development. Her parents express disapproval of her behavior and attire based on their concepts of behavior and attire appropriate for the female gender. The parents, however, have not been effective in influencing Sam to adopt the stereotypical behavior associated with a young female. This suggests that factors other parental role modeling and influences affect the development of gender identity among adolescents. Conclusion The research provides support for accepting the first hypothesis of the study in its alternative form: Some variations about the conception of sexuality and gender identity are culturally specific. Vesey and Bartlett (2007) determined that the concept of the feminine male is more socially acceptable in Samoan culture than in Western cultures. In addition, psychological distress created by gender identity that differs from norms is not considered a disorder in Samoan culture. This suggests that aspects of the concepts about sexuality and gender are culturally specific constructs that can vary significant in different societies. The research provides some support for accepting the second hypothesis of the study in its alternative form: Parents influence the development of gender identity through the way they allow children to participate in gender-specific play and the toys they permit the children to use in play. The research conducted by Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008) as well as Miller and Sommers (2007) suggests that parents cannot fully control the media selection choices of their children. The inability to control play is particularly apparent in adolescence when the child has greater autonomy in the selection of media and video games, which are analogous to toys. The findings provide support for accepting the third hypothesis of the study in its alternative form: Media has the greatest influence in the transmission of information about social norms related to gender to the individual. The findings of Behm-Morawitz and Mastro (2008), Miller and Sommers (2007), and Wright (2007) indicate that media has a significant influence on the formation of gender identity among adolescents. Media conveys information about gender stereotypes and the norm expectation of society, which adolescents compare to their actual experience. Media also has a significant influence on adolescents because they are significant consumers of media products and have not yet developed the ability to discriminate among different types of media messages. As a result, media plays a substantial role in the development of gender identity in adolescence. Bibliography Behm-Morawitz, E. Mastro, D. E. (2008). Mean girls? The influence of gender portrayals in teen movies on emerging adults gender-based attitudes and beliefs. Journalism and Mass Communications Quarterly, 85(1), 131-146. The research discussed in this article used a social cognitive theory framework to examine the effect of gender portrayals in teen movies on beliefs among adolescents about friendships, aggression, and the role of women in society. The findings of the study indicated that the content of the films has a significant influence on the beliefs of adolescents about the societal norms associated with gender. The findings also indicated that the films depicted women as achieving success in the female social world only through the use of duplicitous methods. If female adolescents form their social constructs about feminine behavior from teen movies, they are more likely to engage in aggressive social behavior. Miller, M. Sommers, A. (2007). Gender differences in video game characters roles, appearances and attire as portrayed in video game magazines. Sex Roles, 57, 733-742. This article describes research by the authors investigating the portrayal of male and female roles in video game magazines, which are a significant social influence on adolescents. The research adopted an environmentalism perspective by assuming that media is a significant influence on adolescents in developmental processes by communicating the societal expectations of gender roles. In the video game context, males were heroes, physically powerful and capable of using weapons. In contrast, females were secondary characters that were sexual yet innocent, and were portrayed as wearing more revealing clothing. Wright, R. (2007). Learning empowerment, resistance and female identity development from popular television: Trans-women tell stories of trans-formation. In Servage, L. Fenwick, T. (Eds. ) Learning in community: Proceedings of the joint international conference of the Adult Education Research Conference. Halifax: Mount Saint Vincent University. This article adopts a constructivist perspective for research examining the use of a female character in a television show as a role model by male-to-female transgendered individuals. The television show aired when the individuals were adolescents, with the female character blending stereotypical male and female attributes. Although the television show was aired forty years ago, it continues to be viewed by male adolescents with gender identity issues. Vasey, P. L. Bartlett, N. H. (2007). What can the Samoan Faafafine teach us about the Western concept of gender identity disorder in childhood? Perspectives in biology and Medicine, 50(4), 481-490. This article adopted a constructivism perspective for an investigation of whether the DSM-IV gender identity disorder in childhood constitutes a mental disorder when the criteria are applied to individuals in non-Western cultures. The research investigated the high degree of social tolerance towards feminine males in Samoan culture known as faafafine. The findings of the research indicated that gender-atypical identity and behavior do not inherently lead to distress when controlling for societal intolerance toward these individuals. The findings also indicated that parental discouragement of gender atypical behaviors increases the distress of the individual because of the conflict it creates between the individuals inclinations and the expectations of parents.

Free Essays on Sectinalism- Civil War

North and South The United States of America, the great democratic experiment, was just that. Not since the great Greek culture had a government of, for, and by the people existed. The entire world felt, that on a large scale, democracy would inevitably lead to anarchy; our founding fathers were determined to prove them wrong. But as the political stand off with the British became a secession issue, a great issue split the future nation. Slavery, a southern necessity, both social and economic, threatened the unity of our nation. A nation that would one day be the greatest the world had ever known. During the development of the thirteen colonies, diversity set in early. In the south the temperate climate made the growth of tobacco a suitable and very profitable business. Cultivation of this crop required a lot of land, and therefore settlers lived far apart. Northern Colonies, though, were much more dependent on small farms, with closely knit communities. These differences were the se ed of a sectional division that would plague the nation for a century. During the late seventeenth century, this fissure in the ideals of the colonies became apparent. Following the constant political irreverence from Britain, a majority of colonial representatives felt the need for independence. The Declaration of Independence was the document written to do this. It called for an abolition of slavery as well as freedom from British rule. Unfortunately, the South would hear nothing of it. Being strong defenders of states rights, most of the Southern states adhered to their believe in a government less like a supreme authority and more like a dominion of independent states. They would rather stay loyal to their oppressive government than participate in one that shunned their way of life. In order to keep their dreams of independence, they North was forced to make the one cession they did not wish to make. In order to keep a unified nation, the slavery issue w... Free Essays on Sectinalism- Civil War Free Essays on Sectinalism- Civil War North and South The United States of America, the great democratic experiment, was just that. Not since the great Greek culture had a government of, for, and by the people existed. The entire world felt, that on a large scale, democracy would inevitably lead to anarchy; our founding fathers were determined to prove them wrong. But as the political stand off with the British became a secession issue, a great issue split the future nation. Slavery, a southern necessity, both social and economic, threatened the unity of our nation. A nation that would one day be the greatest the world had ever known. During the development of the thirteen colonies, diversity set in early. In the south the temperate climate made the growth of tobacco a suitable and very profitable business. Cultivation of this crop required a lot of land, and therefore settlers lived far apart. Northern Colonies, though, were much more dependent on small farms, with closely knit communities. These differences were the se ed of a sectional division that would plague the nation for a century. During the late seventeenth century, this fissure in the ideals of the colonies became apparent. Following the constant political irreverence from Britain, a majority of colonial representatives felt the need for independence. The Declaration of Independence was the document written to do this. It called for an abolition of slavery as well as freedom from British rule. Unfortunately, the South would hear nothing of it. Being strong defenders of states rights, most of the Southern states adhered to their believe in a government less like a supreme authority and more like a dominion of independent states. They would rather stay loyal to their oppressive government than participate in one that shunned their way of life. In order to keep their dreams of independence, they North was forced to make the one cession they did not wish to make. In order to keep a unified nation, the slavery issue w...

Temple of Zeus at Akragas, Agrigento, Sicily 500-460 B.C Essay

Temple of Zeus at Akragas, Agrigento, Sicily 500-460 B.C - Essay Example In Agrigento, Sicily, one of the most ancient architectural designs stands there even today, attracting thousands of people from across the globe. Historically, the town is famous for its splendid assortment of more than seven Greek temples that dates back to the sixth and fifth centuries BC. Standing on the southern part of the city of Agrigento, these temples provide a classic example of a historical study about ancient architectural designs, and how they influences modern day architecture (Wilson 7). Many historians believe that the Greek colonialists are the ones who built the city of Akragas in 580 BC. These colonialists had travelled from far, precisely from Rhodes and settled in Sicily. Life during the colonial times was not any easy, as tyranny, persecutions and slavery took the orders of the day. However, these periods happened and democracy settled in slowly and the city dwellers, about 200,000 of them in the fifth century BC, embarked on a journey of developing their city. High-quality wine, olives, and horses decorated the beautiful city, and later on the most famous and beautiful temples stood elected. However, something astonishing happened in 406 BC. The Carthaginians invaded Akragas just barely eight months after the construction of the temples, and mutilated the temples. The Carthaginians ruled the city until 340 BC when Timoleon engaged the Carthage in war and finally defeated them. However, it is important to note that the city had lost its glory and magnificent scene, a scene that stands unrecovered even up to today. The change o one empire to another has not helped in the rebuilding of the temples. However, these temples still have a historical significance to modern day historians and architectural designers (Paton 74-94). In Italy, historians agree that the Olympian Zeus Temple is the prevalent Doric temple ever built and it has some historical significance. However, it is paramount to note that due to various reasons, the construction of these temple never ended. In fact, today, the temple of Zeus lies in ruins as the people responsible for its construction did not do much to compete it. Standing in the Valle dei Templi, other famous temples surround the temple of Zeus thus giving the later a sheer significance. Nonetheless, it is imperative to note that nobody recorded the exact history this temple, and therefore it is quite unclear. This does not however imply that there are no absolute facts about the temple of Zeus. In fact, one of its significance is the commemoration of war pitting Syracuse and Carthaginians (Battle of Himera 480 BC). As earlier noted the Carthaginians had taken control of the city and imposed their rule. Some historians such as Diodorus Siculus point out that the Carthaginians are the ones who built the temple by using slaves. Here, the slaves were mainly the captured enemies parading as soldiers but were now defeated and taken into captivity where they subjected them into hard work and labo r (Wilson 48-61). The ancient literature does not say much about the temple of Zeus although many historians mention it in their writings. For example, Polybius, one of the Greek historians records in a memo that although the other temples surrounding the temple of Zeus looked complete and beautiful unlike the temple of Zeus, the later was completely odd in terms of appearance, design and dimensions. He goes on to say